Before revolutionizing the zoo industry with “natural habitats,” Carl Hagenbeck shocked Europe by exhibiting indigenous people in “human zoos,” a peculiar and dark chapter of history that remains largely unknown.
Today, when we visit modern zoos with their spacious outdoor exhibits, mimicking natural environments with artificial mountains, lakes, and abundant vegetation, few realize that the foundation for this model originated from a controversial figure: Carl Hagenbeck.
This German entrepreneur is not only considered the father of the modern zoo but also a pioneer in exhibiting humans, particularly indigenous people from various regions, as exotic creatures in what were called “human zoos.”
Zoos Before Hagenbeck’s Innovations
In the early 20th century, zoos in Paris, London, and New York looked vastly different from what we see today. Animals, whether lions, elephants, or seals, were confined to cramped, monotonous metal cages, not unlike prisons. They often lived in isolation, with no elements reflecting their natural habitats.
In this context, Carl Hagenbeck’s thinking diverged completely from the norm. He believed that animals should live in environments as close to nature as possible, where they could display instinctive behaviors like climbing, swimming, or hunting. In 1907, he realized this vision by opening Tierpark Hagenbeck in Hamburg, Germany. This was the first time the world saw a zoo without bars or enclosed cages. Instead, it featured open-air “habitats” with clever designs: artificial rock formations, shallow ponds, and observation moats replacing fences. This breakthrough immediately attracted visitors and laid the groundwork for modern zoo models.
The Darker Side: Human Zoos
However, what’s less discussed is that Hagenbeck first experimented with this “natural mimicry” philosophy not with animals, but with humans. Before Tierpark, he organized exhibitions of indigenous people in “human zoos,” a bizarre form of entertainment deeply rooted in colonialism and racist ideologies.
Starting in 1874, after a suggestion from a friend, Hagenbeck brought Sami reindeer herders from Northern Europe to Hamburg, recreating their daily lives in an open area behind his private residence. Leather tents, skis, live reindeer, and traditional rituals were all re-enacted to create a “miniature Lapland” in the heart of Europe, captivating the public.
The success of this display quickly led Hagenbeck to expand the model, bringing groups of indigenous people from Sudan, Greenland, Labrador, and even Tierra del Fuego (Chile) to Europe for public display. Unlike typical theatrical performances, Hagenbeck emphasized the “authenticity” of these exhibits. He believed audiences would be more interested in observing indigenous people in their everyday activities rather than watching a directed performance. This ideology, though seemingly humanitarian, reflected an objectifying viewpoint, treating indigenous people as living research subjects, much like animals in a cage.
Tragic Consequences and Lingering Questions
While many individuals participated in these exhibitions under contract and received payment, there were also numerous tragic cases. For instance, a group of Inuit died from smallpox during an exhibition due to a lack of vaccination, and a group of Kawésqar people were kidnapped, displayed in near-naked conditions, and then died of illness far from their homeland. Hagenbeck reportedly vowed to cease human exhibitions after these tragic deaths, but in reality, he continued these activities until the late 1880s.
At their peak, human zoos became a phenomenon across Europe and America. They appeared at world’s fairs, attracting millions of visitors. An estimated 20,000 to 25,000 indigenous people were exhibited between the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The existence of these “habitats” was not merely for entertainment. They conveyed a profound political message: indigenous people were “dying races” who needed to be “preserved” or at least observed before they disappeared. This perfectly aligned with the prevailing colonial ideology of the time, which believed that “savagery” would inherently lead to extinction, and that European civilization had a mission to “save” what were considered backward peoples.
Hagenbeck’s Enduring Legacy
As the market for human exhibitions became saturated and exotic animals once again became the focus of attention, Hagenbeck shifted his attention back to the animal world. But his influence on the zoo industry became a lasting legacy. The open-air habitat models, the naturalistic display methods, and the view that animals are not just entertainment but living beings who deserve proper respect and care—all originated from him.
Today, the role of zoos remains a controversial topic. Some commend modern zoos for their conservation efforts, helping to save numerous species from the brink of extinction. Others object, arguing that keeping animals in captivity is unnatural and unethical. However, it’s undeniable that thanks to Hagenbeck’s pioneering initiatives, from abandoning metal cages to mimicking ecosystems, animals in zoos today live in much better conditions than they did a century ago.
Carl Hagenbeck was a complex figure. On one hand, he was the first to question how humans should treat wild animals in captivity, initiating the idea of respecting animals’ natural behaviors. On the other hand, he also contributed to a dark chapter in human history by turning indigenous people into exhibits. His legacy serves as a profound reminder of the intersection between progress and ethics, between science and compassion, a balance that any civilization must consider on its evolutionary journey.